Arizona vs Grant Essays

Arizona vs Grant Essays Arizona vs Grant Paper Arizona vs Grant Paper Arizona v. Grant Arizona v. Grant The U. S. Supreme Court limits how police searches a vehicle after Arizona v. Grant. April 21, 2009 the U. S. Supreme Court adds new limits on how law enforcement officer can search the passenger compartments of a vehicle. Due to this ruling, police officers require having either evidence of a crime for which the suspect is being arrested for, or the officers are completing a weapons check that could be within reach of the suspect. Arizona v. Grant makes important changes within the Fourth Amendment. After New York v. Belton, the U. S. Supreme Court had allowed officers to search the passenger compartment of any vehicle when the person was being arrested that was driving or was a passenger in without a warrant. Belton’s justification was the fact that a person can constitutionally be search for weapons and any other evidence, and further that any officer can search the immediate area of control for weapons or any other evidence. Since the new ruling with Arizona v. Grant overturns the ruling of New York v. Belton, and sets a new standard for what is allowed during a search in a car related arrested. New Ruling The new ruling in Arizona v. grant adds modifications to the Fourth Amendment in regards to police searches. The changes state, â€Å"Police may search the passenger compartment of a vehicle incident to recent occupant’s arrest only if it is reasonable to believe that the arrestee might access the vehicle at the time of the search or that the vehicle contains evidence of the offense of arrest† (Arizona v. Grant 07-542. ) The U. S. Supreme Court ruled against the fact that officers can justify search a vehicle in traffic violations or any situation where no other evidence of crime had occurred. Example of those would be: failure to appear, driving without a license, failing to pay child support. Arizona v. Grant allows checking for weapons within reach of the suspect, or anywhere reasonable within reach of the suspect. The main changes within Arizona v. Grant is police officer are no longer allowed to pull an individual over for a traffic violation, have the driver exit the vehicle, place them in hand cuff to be able to fully search a vehicle, which was commonly practiced by law enforcement agencies. Surveillance by Police The Fourth Amendment protects U. S. citizens’ rights under the U. S. Constitution â€Å"to be secure in their persons, house, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures. † The U. S. Supreme Court looks at surveillance as a form of search and seizure and should require a person’s consent or a have warrant. However, the US Patriot Act, which was signed by Present George Bush in 2001 which states that The â€Å"Patriot Act,† allows law enforcement alone approve searches without oversight by the courts in, performed for national security matters. In regards to Arizona v. Grant that if the traffic stop was at any thought was a national security threat that the vehicle could be searched without a judicial warrant under the Patriot Act. Surveillance by School Officials At one time people did not have to worry about the children while attending school, however with statists stating that 100,000 students a day bring guns to school and 160,000 students skip class a day because of fear or being harmed (Davis. ) Surveillance has been a key part of keeping students staff while attending school. In Commonwealth v. Cass, 709 A. 2d 350, 357 (Pa. 1998), the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania recently listed several reasons that justified the school officials ‘heightened concern’ as to drug activity in the school. These factors include: * Information received from unnamed students; * Observations from teachers of suspicious activity by the students, such as passing small packages amongst themselves in the hallways; * increased use of the student assistance program for counseling students with drug problems; * Calls from concerned parents; Observation of a growing number of students carrying pagers; * Students in possession of large amounts of money; and, * Increased use of pay phones by students. † The conditions might be a little inexplicit, however under any suspicion can lead to weapons and or controlled substance being retrieved. A random locker search should only happen under the circumstance that places the students at amendment risk. Which regard to surveill ance with security cameras, law states that surveillance cameras cannot be placed were it invades person privacy, such as restrooms, or locker rooms. Surveillance by Security Personal After 911, there have been many changes in the Fourth Amendment in regards to the Patriot Act as it allows law enforcement alone approve searches without oversight by the courts in, performed for national security matters. TSA has played an important role in private security in keeping passengers safe while flying, however due the new body scanners, people question if it violates their Fourth Amendment right. TSA is backed by the 9th Circuit Court of the United States, as it ruled in 1973 to search passengers in airports. This ruling suspends limited aspects of the Fourth Amendment while undergoing airport security screening. On the U. S. V. Davis (482 F. 2d 893,908) has a key piece of the wording which gives TSA the searching powers it states, â€Å"â€Å"noting that airport screenings are considered to be administrative searches because they are conducted as part of a general regulatory scheme, where the essential administrative purpose is to prevent the carrying of weapons or explosives aboard aircraft. (482 F. 2d 893,908)† In regard to Arizona V. Grant police have to have probable cause to search, however airport security does not have to follow those rules under U. S v. Davis ruling. Conclusion April 21, 2009, changed the way police officers completed their search of a vehicle and the passenger compartment. After Arizona v. Grant, law enforcement must have probable cause that a crime has occurred or officers are completing a weapon sweep, that only the suspect could have reasonable reach too. When 911 occurred security in the United States changed. The Patriot Act was adopted and it allowed law enforcement alone approve searches without oversight by the courts in, performed for national security matters. U. S v. Davis gave TSA their searching powers, without violating peoples Fourth Amendment rights. Until the U. S. Supreme Court changes the Fourth Amendment, after Arizona v. Grant law enforcement have to probable cause to search a vehicle. References Commonwealth v. Cass, 709 A. 2d 350, 357 (Pa. 1998) Kathy Davis, John Kelsey, Dia Langellier, Misty Mapes, and Jeff Rosendahl Surveillance in Schools: Safety vs. Personal Privacy Locker Searches students. ed. uiuc. edu/jkelsey/surveillance/locker. htm justice. gov/archive/ll/highlights. htm U. S. V. Davis 482 F. 2d 893,908

Iraq Survey essays

Iraq Survey essays I went around a high school during lunch to survey a student and ask him about some questions about our situation with Iraq and the Middle East. I asked a series of fifteen questions to see what their opinions and feelings were for issues that can or will come up as this situation grows. Their opinions were similar to what I feel, but some aspects were different with my interviewee. The first question asked was concerning the US military draft. He said that he was terrified of the thought of being drafted into war. He is afraid that if the war grows large enough, that there would be a chance he could be drafted. I feel the same way, because I just turned eighteen and the possibility of being drafted is there. I am also concerned that if the war grows, that I could be drafted and sent to the Middle East. The second question asked was about homeland security. I asked if there was a fear that we could be bombed or attacked at home. He said that he was scared that we could be attacked somehow, but not by means of a bombing. He feels that there is no immediate threat to Ooltewah, Tennessee. I also feel that way, but I am afraid that Oak Ridge could be a target and that could endanger us in this area. The third question was asking if he agrees that we are the largest threat to world peace. He did not know the answer to this question, but I would have to say no that we are working towards a better, safer world. I disagree with Britain saying that we posed the largest threat to world peace. The fourth question was whether or not bin Laden was still alive and whether or not he poses a threat to the United States. He said that he thinks that he is still alive, and that he poses a larger threat to the US than Iraq. I would disagree because Iraq is more organized and a longer known enemy. We think Iraq has built weapons of mass destruction and is not afraid to use them. I have not heard of bin Laden ha ...

'To live is to be photographed (Sontag 2004). Does photography have a Essay

'To live is to be photographed (Sontag 2004). Does photography have a special role in the mediation of our lives, and how, according to Sontag, is this role changing - Essay Example There is a big role of photography in the conception of the history of the world. Photographs have historically provided an objective record of the events of the real world. They have served as a key in confirming the ravages of the Civil War for the public. â€Å"Roland Barthes, a preeminent theorist of photography, said that photograph is the "sovereign contingency," meaning it is dependent on something else happening† (Huds, 2013). In the earlier times, photography was considered as the domain of only the rich people in the world. The power of photography was spread to the general public’s hands after the invention of the instant camera by the Eastman Kodak company (Huds, 2013). Using this camera and the cheap 35 mm film, it was possible for any individual, rich or poor, to capture an image by clicking the camera, thus making photography evolve as the most popular art form. Photographs do play a special role in the mediation of our lives. There is an insuperable powe r in photographs that helps them determine what can be recalled in the events. Photography brings the memories of childhood back to us. Photographs help us recall a sad or happy moment that we can share with others. The power of picture is that it captures a single moment’s quintessence and makes it permanent so that it can be reviewed over and over again. Photographs help us keep record of our past as well as present. ... r is to convey the actual fear and horror prevailing in the battle-field to the people in an attempt to discourage the occurrence of wars in the future. Once, a photographer said, â€Å"I thought I was going to save the world with my photographs† (The Free Library, 2013). Thousands of photographs of the Vietnam War were taken and almost all of them were viewed by people in different parts of the world within only few days of their being made. Those photographs were basically meant to be seen as soon as possible. The photographs were disturbing and affected people emotionally and psychologically. They made the audiences feel sickened. It is a fact that some photographs, particularly those of the war, are intentionally taken to shock the audience because the images recalled are the ones that are the most horrifying and compelling. Such photographs are imprinted on the minds of the audience. A memorable photograph is one that has an impact. It is a form of a visual impression tha t awakens the individual looking at it in a positive or a negative way. A horrifying photograph spurs anger and frustration in the audience. It evokes an emotional response that makes the audience think upon the context that reflects from the photograph. A photographer making a documentary focuses the camera at the real world to capture the drama of life, death, and all that lies in between the two. The audiences have been brought quite close to the important events of the world by the photojournalists. They have helped the audiences see the world as it is in reality rather than the way it is projected in the news. The medium of photography has even made the armchair participants completely aware citizens of this world. In the present age, the importance of photographs cannot be overestimated.

Television Effects on Children Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Television Effects on Children - Research Paper Example ar I may have rode a horse to school and spent their days primarily taking care of the family farm or working in what would now be considered ‘sleepy hamlets’ with malt shops, drug stores and barbers sweeping their front step. Their children listened to the radio, rode in cars, could call anyplace in the world and enjoyed the comforts of electricity and indoor plumbing. While this lifestyle was already accelerated to at least twice the speed of their forebears, it was the next generation that was changed most by technology. In the 1950’s, television entered the home becoming part of almost every family. It was not simply a tool; it entertained, educated and babysat the generations to follow. Society took its biggest leap either forward or backward, depending on your viewpoint, after the public adopted what was to become the family friend. Commentators have noted how each generation since the introduction of the television have become progressively more violent, le ss active and suffer from an increasingly diminished attention span. It seems reasonable, therefore, to look to the television as the possible source of this violence as it negatively affects the development of our children. Studies vary on the exact amount of television children watch per day but it is commonly accepted that it is a large percentage of their lives outside school and sleep. While mesmerized in front of the T.V., children are exposed to many hours of violence, drug use and sex as well as to influential, sophisticated and enticing commercials. Research regarding the behavioral outcomes of television advertising found that it is a significant factor in determining the specific items children request and contribute to children’s sense of social status based upon whether they can ‘have that’ or not. From the time of television’s inception, no one has doubted that this medium would generate its operating revenues from advertising. However, advertising directed

The Impact of Media on Behavior Essay Example for Free

The Impact of Media on Behavior Essay This chapter presents the background, problem statement, purpose, specific objectives, the scope and the significance of the study. This study intended to find out the relationship between parenting styles, mass media, peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancy among the youth using a case study of orphanage homes found in Rubaga division Kampala District 1.1: Background to the problem. Several past researchers have had interest in the relationship between parenting styles, mass media, peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancy among the youth in different contexts. For instance the research by Wingson (2009) was about the effects of mass media on teenager. He notes in this research that mass media has become part of everyone’s daily life. He adds that the development of technology is rapid in the world, from telegraph, radio, to TV, computer, mobile phone. He further noted that media makes the lives of the people at ease, along with Information and Communication Technologies they produce to increase the standard of living for the people to spend time. He concludes that, teenagers can easier to get mass media in computer. They can through computers to know different types of mass media that they want to have. Dr. Baumrind (1966) studied how parents responded to the needs of their children, parental responsiveness and how that determined a child’s  behavior. She also looked at how they demanded things from their children, in terms of their behavior. She used these two measures of parenting to form her seminal parenting styles theory, which would shape the voice of psychology and criminology well into the 1990’s. The research by Farinola, Donnerstein, (2001) was on sexuality and mass media. The research shows that sexual talk and displays are increasingly frequent and explicit in this mediated world. The research adds that sexual content that ranged from flirting to sexual intercourse had increased from slightly more than half of television programs in 1997-1998 to more than two-thirds of the programs in the 1999-2000 seasons, while the research of Rahaman Onike (2007) was social and health implications of teenage pregnancies. The research notes that the incidence of teenage pregnancy has become a global issue as a result of its consequence on population health, growth and development. Lastly Crystal, (1990) carried out research on the causes teenage pregnancies. His research shows that teenagers’ risky sexual behaviours are major factors which predispose them to unwanted pregnancies. He adds that non -perception of risks in their sexual behaviours and lack of adequate information about reproduction and sexual health issues are largely responsible for teenage pregnancies. The research concludes that sexual behaviours of the teenagers depend largely on societal constrictions and the level of cultural permissiveness which dictate the modes of sexual practices While much research concerning teenage pregnancy deals with either causal factors or prevention strategies, more information is needed about issues relating to parenting styles, mass media, peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancies. All these past researchers isolated the above relationship a gap the proposed study intends to fill. All in all, with the above theoretical and contextual gaps raised, a study of the relationship between parenting styles, mass media, peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancies is not only timely but also long overdue. In the context of this study, parenting style is seen as a psychological construct representing standard strategies that parents use bin their child rearing. There are many different theories and opinions on the best ways to rear, children, as well as differing levels of time and effort that parents are willing to invest (Wikipedea 2010). Many parents create their own styles from a combination of factors, and these may evolve overtime as the children develop their own personalities and move through life stages. A parenting style is affected by both the parents’ and children’s temperaments, and is largely based on the influence one’s parents and culture. However, for the purposes of this study, parenting style will be understood to refer to the way parents bring about their children. It will include the things that parents do to impart discipline and good behaviors in their children as accepted in the context of Uganda. According to Wikipedea (2008), mass media denotes a section of the media specifically designed to reach a large audience. The term was coined in the 1920s with the advent of nation wide radio networks, mass circulation of newspapers and magazines. However for the purposes of this research mass media will be used to mean news papers, magazines, radio stations and television programs related to issues of teenagers. In the context of this study, teenage pregnancy can be described as the pregnancy that occurs to the females between 13 – 19 years. This is more prevalent in Africa than other continents of the world. Akindele Oscar (1999) also defines teenage pregnancy as conception by children who are below the age of 21 resulting from either marital or pre-marital sex. Peer pressure refers top the influence exerted by a peer group in encouraging a person to change his or her attitude, values or behavior in order to conform to group norms Akindele Oscar (1999) 1.2: Statement of the Problem. According to Barnaba A (1998), youth peer pressure is one of the most frequently referred to forms of peer pressure. It is particularly common pressure because most young people spend large amounts of time in fixed  groups such as schools and sub-groups within them regardless of their opinion of those groups Meier (2008). In addition to this, they may lack the maturity to handle pressure from friends. Also, young people are more willing to behave negatively towards those who are not members of their own peer groups and relief from stress. They need to better understand their condition and choices for care. However, this is not the case for teenagers in most cases most vulnerable persons do not receive good parenting and in most cases they are more exposed to information without restriction. As a result most of the teenagers engage in more risky sexual behaviors they see in the magazines, in the news papers and on television. It is for this reason that this study sets out to investigate the relationship between parenting styles, mass media peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancies in Rubaga Kampala District 1.3:Purpose of the study The purpose of the study will be to establish the relationship to investigate the relationship between parenting styles, mass media peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancies in Rubaga Kampala District. 1.4:Objectives of the study 1.To establish the relationship between parenting styles and teenage pregnancies 2.To establish the relationship between mass media and teenage pregnancies. 3.To establish the relationship between peer pressure and teenage pregnancies. I.5:Research questions 1.How do parenting styles contribute to the risk of teenage pregnancies? 2.What is the contribution of mass media on the risk of teenage pregnancies? 3.How does peer pressure contribute to teenage pregnancies? 1.6:Scope of the study The study will be conducted in five selected orphanage homes found in Rubaga division of Kampala. Rubaga Division has five orphanage homes namely Sanyu Babies home, Nalukolongo, Hope Orphanage Home, Wakhissa Ministries, Cobap Nakulabye Project. Rubaga Division is selected because of its location in the heart of Kampala district and being a division with many community based  organizations. The content scope of the study will be based on the relationship between parenting styles, mass media, peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancies. 1.7:Significance of the study The findings of the study could be of value to Rubaga division residents because the research will help them identify strategies which can work for them as regards combating teenage pregnancies. To future researchers, the results of the study may support future researchers in having a basis for comparison of parenting styles and teenage pregnancies. Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) could find the study useful because it would enable them lobby policy makers and government to provide appropriate community services as regards the youth. To the youth, the results of the study will help them on knowing the best strategies of avoiding teenage pregnancies. Media houses may find it useful as it may help them in choosing the best programs for the youth. 1.8:Conceptual Frame work Fig 1: A conceptual framework showing the relationship between parenting styles, mass media, peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancies among the youth. The conceptual framework shows that parenting styles mass media influence and peer pressure have got an impact on the youth that in turn make the youth prone to pregnancies. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0:Introduction Teenage pregnancy has become a growing concern nowadays and hence it has become imperative to look into the various causes of teenage pregnancy in  order to deal with this issue carefully. Teenage pregnancies are widely discouraged because the of health risks they raise for the young mothers and their babies. This problem is more prevalent in developed countries, particularly USA. As the name itself indicates, teenage pregnancy refers to pregnancy in young girls, mostly aged 13 to 17 years. Pregnancy at such a tender age is primarily due to lack of sex education. Lack of awareness about the causes and effects of teenage pregnancy is more often than not, a result of lack of proper communication between teenagers and their parents. Therefore, it is the duty of the parents to impart adequate sex education and education regarding reproductive health to their adolescent sons and daughters so that their children become aware of the various aspects related teenage sex and pregnancy. Schools and society also need to emphasize the risk factors associated with unprotected sex as well as the outcomes of unplanned teenage pregnancy, not to mention the significance of moral and ethical values. Lack of sex education is the most important but not the only cause of teenage pregnancy. Following are some other teenage pregnancy causes that can not be ignored. Teenage pregnancies create a host of other problems like incomplete education, unemployment, poverty, social embarrassment and numerous other emotional traumas. Further, early motherhood also affects the psychological development of the child adversely. Besides, bodies of teenage girls are not as developed as those of adult women in terms of childbearing, therefore they are likely to face certain complications as well. Moreover, the chances of maternal death can not be ruled out. Therefore, analyzing the various causes of teenage pregnancy can help a great deal in addressing this issue effectively and eventually reduc ing the cases of teenage pregnancies. 2.1:Parenting styles and the risk of teenage Pregnancy among the youth Despite what teens may say, their parents do play a critical role in determining what influences them. In many ways, parental behavior and the nature of the parent/teen relationship influences a teens decision to smoke, take drugs, become sexually active, and use contraception. Parental behavior can also affect teenagers choices to join a gang or participate in criminal activity. As a parent, you play a vital role in helping your child avoid risky behaviors. Actively listening to what your teen has to say will pave the way for conversations about topics that concern you, but setting harsh, unbending  rules may only drive your teen toward negative choices. If parents have a dominating parenting style and arent knowledgeable about their teens activities and interests, it is more likely that their teen will engage in risky behaviors. On the other hand, teens who report feeling connected to their parents are the least likely to engage in risky behaviors. Obviously, the reason at the base of any pregnancy is sexual intercourse. But several researchers would like to know why the phenomenon of teenage pregnancy is so widespread. The easiest answer is making an analysis of the relationship between parenting styles and the sexual behaviors that cause teenage pregnancies among the youth. Parents employ several strategies to influence the sexual behavior of their adolescent children. Parenting styles, parental communication and expectation and role modeling have an impact on the likelihood of teenage pregnancy. The influence of parenting strategies on teenage pregnancy is similar for male and female youth because pregnancy comes as a result of sexual intercourse between the two. Therefore teen pregnancy prevention programs should emphasize helping parents develop effective discipline coupled with warmth and support and high educational expectations. Research has shown that one of the causes of teenage pregnancy is the lack of a sense of personal responsibility for their own actions, lack of maturity, and most importantly a lack of knowledge regarding sexual intercourse and contraception. Related to this, teen pregnancy is often closely associated with poverty, limited education and employment opportunities. 52% of teenagers admit not understanding sex or birth control and this is a reflection of one of the most fundamental causes of teenage pregnancy, ignorance. Indeed, teens in North America, especially girls, are bombarded with mixed messages concerning intercourse. Sex is seen as immediate gratification with no consequences, but preparing for sex makes a girl promiscuous. Sex is seen all over the television and in videos, but equal treatment for birth control methods is completely absent. Open discussions about intercourse are very rare. If an adolescent girl experiences low expectations for her future or lack of control over her life, she is more likely to get pregnant. Depression in general is another one of the causes of teenage pregnancy, leading girls to engage in risky sexual activity. Abuse of alcohol or drugs also leads to poor choices about sex and contraception, often ending up in pregnancy. Growing up in a family  without an adequate amount of love or a father figure may also be one of the causes of teenage pregnancy; an adolescent girl will fall prey to the attentions of an older man in the hopes of receiving affection. Most girls are pressured by their boyfriends into having intercourse because they believe this will make their b oyfriends love them more. There is a relationship between teenage pregnancy, sexual behavior, and family type. Students from lone parent and/or teenage mother initiate families more commonly report sex, lack of contraception at first sex, and/or conceptions by age 15/16, and such associations can be explained by low parental strictness, difficult parent-child communication, and/or low parental input into sex education. Girls and boys from lone parent families or having mothers who are teenagers when they were born are more likely to report sex but not lack of contraception at first sex by age 15/16. Girls and boys with mothers having them as teenagers, and boys but not girls from lone parent families, are more likely to report being involved in conceptions by age 15/16. Teens say their parents influence their decisions about sexual activity more than any other source, according to a survey conducted by the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. Also, when asked where they learned the most about preventing teen pregnancy, more teens said parents than friends or the media. Most studies show that the risk of teen pregnancy is reduced by open communication with parents, sharing of family values, and parental involvement in teens lives. Teenagers are less likely to start having sex when their mothers are deeply involved in their lives and successfully communicate their values on sex. Research has shown that stressing abstinence to teens is best, but also talking to them about contraception is not viewed as a mixed message by 70% of adults and by 80% of teens. Boys may be more influenced by fathers, siblings and peers on their decision to have intercourse. In a loving, supportive, and open way, parents need to communicate their feelings on premarital sex clearly to their teen in order to help their teen make important decisions regarding sex. The absence of positive family interaction and parental support, such as emotional support, closeness, and communication, can lead to a wide variety of risky behaviors among teens. Parents need to talk to their teens, consistently set rules and expectations for their teens behavior, and monitor what their teen does. Parents can support positive peer  relationships by giving their teenagers their love, time, boundaries, and encouragement to think for themselves. Previous research has attributed a girls increased risk of pregnancy to the possible consequences of a father leaving lower family income, conflict at home and weak parental monitoring. Girls whose fathers left either before they were born or up to age 5 were seven to eight times more at risk of becoming pregnant as an adolescent than girls living with their fathers. A fathers departure between ages 6 to13 suggested a two to three times greater risk of becoming pregnant. Having no father usually means less household income and a greater chance of other disadvantages, such as domestic violence or a depressed mother. Sometimes parents need help talking to their children about such difficult topics as teenage sexuality and pregnancy prevention. Teenage pregnancy prevention must be a way of life and a natural and integral way of thinking for children as the actions that lead to or away from teenage pregnancy lies squarely, and at the end of the day, solely with their teenage children. Children will be greatly influenced by the parental example that has been given them to follow is clear, but they will have to decide for themselves what actions they will take in any given circumstance. Sometimes parents need help talking to their children about such difficult topics as teenage sexuality and pregnancy prevention. Teenage pregnancy prevention must be a way of life and a natural and integral way of thinking for children as the actions that lead to or away fr om teenage pregnancy lies squarely, and at the end of the day, solely with their teenage children. Children will be greatly influenced by the parental example that has been given them to follow is clear, but they will have to decide for themselves what actions they will take in any given circumstance. A child who can openly and honestly speak with their Parents about anything and everything literally has the greatest single gift, and the largest possible safety net, a Parent can provide to their child. Children need to know how Parents feel about sex. They need to know the reasons for and against engaging in sexual behaviors and the possible consequences regarding each course of action. Discuss your views about sex and its proper time and place in a healthy and happy life. Parents should just start talking and see where the conversation takes them. Children are taught in school the importance of safe sex and the use of condoms to prevent an unwanted pregnancy and/or sexually transmitted  diseases, including AIDS. Parents should ensure their children understand these issues even if the plan is for their children to not be sexually active at this time in their lives. Having a clear understanding of safe sex practices can prevent a teenage issue that leads to sex from being a larger and more damaging issue than it has to be. Parents need to know who their children are spending time with. They should get to know their children’s friends and their friend’s family. Friends who share common thoughts and beliefs are more likely to support children in wholesome and proper activities. In the parenting style taken up by the parents, there should be clear family rules regarding the age at which our children can start dating, and those first dates should be group events engaged in wholesome activities. Parents should also realize that the risk of teenage pregnancy increases dramatically when girls date boys who are 1 to 3 years older than they are. Parents who can help their children see a bright future are the same Parents who are helping the cause of teenage pregnancy prevention. The chances of teenager delaying sexual activity are greatly increased if their futures appear bright, they have goals for their future, and they can see how proper behavior and correct actions will help them get to where they want to go in life. Teenagers who are active and successful in school are more likely to have a clear vision for their future, and hence avoid behavior that could put at risk the future they want to achieve. Parents should help their children to believe in themselves, to have a healthy self-image and positive self-esteem and enjoy a solid vision for their happy tomorrows. Parents should help teenagers to see that their choices of today will directly affect their tomorrows. Having that clear vision of a bright and hopeful future makes teenage pregnancy prevention a logical and welcome avenue to the future life our children desire so desperately to enjoy. Some parents help children know their parts and to learn their lines well, so that when the action scenes of their lives are lived they can be the hero of their own stories and avoid the heart ache scenes that don’t have to be a part of their productions. 2.2:Mass media and the risk of teenage pregnancies among the youth. Mass media is designed to reach large audiences with technology. Its purpose is meant to give us entertainment and information we need to act as a society. Media is everywhere; there is no escaping from it. Almost every home in urban areas has at least one TV, the  internet, and a cell phone. There are more forms of media available today than ever before; consequently, teens are exposed to a lot of information. The media is supposed to portray what is normal; therefore, it affects what society considers normal. Teens are much more impressionable then adults. What the media tells them is normal affects them more. The media’s portrayal of body image affects teens negatively through using stereotypes, encouraging sexual behavior, and promoting unnecessary products. The media portrays single parent homes, teen pregnancy, and the social issue that America faces in a positive light. Music Television (MTV) has several shows which portray teen pregnancy as a positive attribute of life: Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant. Teen Mom is an American reality television series that premiered on MTV on December 8, 2009. The perceived sensitivity of sex as a research topic and a focus on television t o the exclusion of other media unfortunately has restricted the kind of research that has been done. Much of the empirical work has been analyses of content that allow only speculation about what effects the content might have on audiences. But an emerging set of studies that go beyond content to address how audiences select, interpret, and apply sexual content suggests that the media may play an important role, especially for young people Steele, (1999). The mass media are an increasingly accessible way for people to learn about and see sexual behavior Wikipedea, (2010). The media may be especially important for young people as they are developing their own sexual beliefs and patterns of behavior and as parents and schools remain reluctant to discuss sexual topics Roberts, (2000). In the United States, young people spend 6 to 7 hours each day on average with some form of media. A national survey in 1999 found that one third of young children (2 to 7 years old) and two thirds of older children and adolescents (8 to 18 years old) have a television in their own bedroom. Many of those televisions also are hooked up to cable and a Videocassette Recorder (VCR) (Roberts, 2000). Sexual talk and displays are increasingly frequent and explicit in this mediated world. One content analysis found that sexual content that ranged from flirting to sexual intercourse had increased from slightly more than half of television programs in 1997-1998 to more than two-thirds of the programs in the 1999-2000 season. Depiction of intercourse (suggestive or explicit) occurred in one of every 10 programs (Kunkel, Cope-Farrar, Biely, Farinola,   Donnerstein, 2001). Many teens admit that sexualized content in film, television and music helps influence them to engage in sexual activity before they are ready. One fifth to one half of music videos, depending on the music genre for example country, rock, rap portray sexuality or eroticism DuRant et al., (1997). Two thirds of Hollywood movies made each year are R-rated; most young people have seen these movies long before they are the required 16 years old Greenberg et al., (1993). Although teen girls and womens magazines, such as Seventeen and Glamour have increased their coverage of sexual health issues over the past decade, the majority of advertising and editorial content in these magazines remains focused on what girls and women should do to get and keep their man Walsh-Childers, Gotthoffer, Lepre, ( 2002). The Internet has increased dramatically the availability of sexually explicit content. Computer and Internet use is diffusing more rapidly than any previous technology; as of the end of 1999, more than half (56%) of all adults in the United States were online. It is expected that by 2010 most U.S. homes with children will have access to the Internet Taylor, (1999). The word sex is the most popular search term used on the internet today Cyber Atlas, (2001). The internet may have both positive and negative effects on sexual health. According to one national survey of young people (10-17 years old) who regularly used the internet, one out of four said he or she had encountered unwanted pornography in the past year, and one out of five had been exposed to unwanted sexual solicitations or approaches Finkelhor, Mitchell, Wolak, (2000). At the same time, a number of sites, such as the American Social Health Associations iwannaknow.org, promote healthy sexual behavior and provide young people with advice on communication in relationships as well as methods for protecting against sexually transmitted diseases. Despite increasing public concern about the potential health risks of early, unprotected sexual activity, most of the mass media rarely depict three Cs of responsible sexual behavior: Commitment, Contraceptives, and consideration of Consequences. Although more than half of the couples who engage in sexual intercourse on television are in an established relationship, 1 in 10 are couples who have met only recently; one quarter do not maintain a relationship after having sex Kunkel et al., ( 2001). Only about 1 in 10 of the programs on television that include sexual content  mentions the possible consequences or the need to use contraceptives or protection against STDs. Unintended pregnancies rarely are shown as the outcome of unprotected sex, and STDs other than HIV/AIDS are almost never discussed Kunkel et al., (2001). Abortion is a taboo topic, too controversial for commercial television and magazines Walsh-Childers et al., (2002). The urge to have sex and get pregnancy is now stronger because of the fact that one has an encounter with media. There are teenagers who are getting pregnant just to be on these reality television shows.Teen sexuality is influenced by the mass media today more than any other time in history. Internet, television, music video and sexually explicit lyrics all contribute to adolescents’ attitudes and behavior concerning sexual activity. Only 9% of the sex scenes on 1,300 of cable network programming discusses and deals with the negative cons equences of sexual behavior. The Internet and the anonymity therein allow adolescents real concerns relating to false information on health issues, sexuality, and sexual violence in the world of intimate sexual relationships. In 2006, a survey conducted by The Observer in Britain showed that most adolescents in Britain were waiting longer to have sexual intercourse than they were only a few years earlier. In 2002, 32% of teens were having sex before the age of 16; in 2006 it was only 20%. The average age a teen lost his/her virginity was 17.13 years in 2002; in 2006, it was 17.44 years on average for girls and 18.06 for boys. The most notable drop among teens who reported having sex was 14 and 15 year olds. One group of Canadian researchers found a relationship between self esteem and sexual activity. They found that students, especially girls, who were verbally abused by teachers or rejected by their peers, were more likely than other students to engage in sex by the end of the Grade 7. The researchers speculate that low self esteem increases the likelihood of sexual activity: low self-esteem seemed to explain the link between peer rejection and early sex. Girls with a poor self-image may see sex as a way to become popular, according to the researchers. 2.3:Peer Pressure and the risk of teenage Pregnancy among the youth The incidence of teenage pregnancy in relationship with peer pressure has become a global issue as a result of its consequence on population health, growth and development. It is undoubtedly a worldwide concern since the Cairo  international conference on population and development held in 1994 has raised it as an issue among others. Teenagers are children who fall within the chronological age of twelve to nineteen years. Teen, of course, is a period when a child begins to develop secondary sexual characteristics, started to assume higher social responsibilities and started to express sexual feelings and desires. This is a delicate period in the life of the children for all physical changes have great impacts on the psychological functioning of the child. Teenagers’ risky sexual behaviours are major factors which predispose them to unwanted pregnancies. Non perception of risks in their sexual behaviours and lack of adequate information about reproduction and sexual health issues are largely responsible for teenage pregnancies. Sexual behaviours of the teenagers depend largely on societal constrictions and the level of cultural permissiveness which dictate the modes of sexual practices (Crystal, 1990). Biological determinants, socialization agents such as family, peers, religious institutions and mass media have powerful repressive effects on teenagers’ sexual behaviours. An adolescent female in need of money is likely to be tempted to engage in pre-marital sex by friends who come from rich families or those that use sexual activity to get money and this could result into incident of unwanted teenage pregnancy. Students whose parents are low income earners face the higher risk of engaging in pre-marital sex and this could eventually lead to teenage pregnancy and increase in drop out rate of school. Lack of adequate knowledge of sexuality education accounts for increase in teenage pregnancies. This is because; information about sex is got from peers who may also be less knowledgeable. Knowledge of sexuality education is essential to the development of right sexual attitudes and behaviours. When adequate and accurate information are not available, many teenage students would accept miss-information for truth. Peer group influence is another factor that predisposes teenagers to early and unwanted pregnancies. According to the result of the study conducted by Oladepo and Akintayo (2001), peer group influence was ranked first among the causes of teenage pregnancies. Free mixing of the opposite sex also linked with prevalence of teenage pregnancies. Akinboye (1982) in his contribution states that unrestricted interactions and social activities regularly involving male and female adolescents tend to create an atmosphere for inter-personal  affection, love and even result into sexual activities. Peer influence on the youth sometimes is related to going out or visiting different places where one may learn risky behaviours. Watching sexual stimulating magazines and movies may expose the teenagers to early sexual life and unwanted pregnancies. Participating in nude festivals and watching of pornographic films and images on the internet are also risk factors. Family instability and disorganisation which may be caused by poverty, lack of mutual trust and understanding between parents may cause child neglect and consequently could result into teenage pregnancy and increase in drop out rate of the school. Legalization of abortion and early exposure to sexual life can cause teenage pregnancy. According to the report of a study conducted in Nigeria by Nicholas in 1986, he found out that 24.4 per cent of the girls by the age of 15 years have had sexual intercourse, 63 per cent by 18 years while half of the Nigerian females have become mothers before the age of 20 years. Peer influence is also directly and indirectly related to pre-mature drop out of school which is also a factor which predisposes female students to fall a victim of teenage pregnancy. The drop-out female students after leaving the school due to one reason or the other find it difficult to cope with life; so, took to hawking and in the process may get impregnated. In this case friends may influence one to get married or to join businesses. CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.0:Introduction This chapter presents the research design, population, sampling strategies, data collection methods, data collection instruments, data quality control, data collection procedure and data analysis that will be used in the study. 3.1:Research design The study will use an explanatory survey design that will be quantitative and descriptive in nature. This design was chosen because it can appropriately investigate the relationship between parenting styles, mass media, peer  pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancy among the youth in orphanage homes in Rubaga Division of Kampala District. Orphanage homes are chosen because, in most cases these are the places where the children who are victims of unwanted pregnancies are taken for care. 3.2:Area of study The study will be conducted in Rubaga Division in Nakulabye Parish that is COBAP Nakulabye, Nalukolongo Orphanage home, Sanyu Babies home in Namirembe Bakuli Parish, Hope Orphanage home and Wakhissa Ministries in Bakuli. Five orphanage homes will be randomly selected as they are the only orphanage homes available in the area of study. The researcher will also go to 3 radio stations in the area of study that is Super FM, Central Broadcasting Service and Ssuubi FM. 3.3:Study population The study will involve 60 care providers and employees of the orphanage homes at least 12 from each of the selected orphanage homes. 15 employees of radio stations in the area of study will also be used to answer questionnaires. At least 5 employees from each radio station that is Super FM, Central Broadcasting Service and Ssuubi FM. The researcher will target presenters of those programs related to the topic of study. Children from the orphanage homes are left out because in most cases they are young and below 18. The researchers may even seek for secondary data from the records available. Questionnaires will be used for they are to bring out concerns and needs of the target population in relation to the care providers and children under care. The care providers are chosen because they are in direct administration of the affairs regarding the children and they are equipped with information about unwanted pregnancies 3.4:Data collection The main instruments for data collection were interview guides and questionnaires. Questionnaires will be administered to collect data about the relationship between parenting styles, mass media, peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancy among the youth in orphanage homes in Rubaga  Division of Kampala District. 3.5:Procedure and data collection The researcher obtained an introduction letter from the department of Mental Health and Community Psychology from her supervisor. The researcher then will approached the administrators of the five orphanage homes and the three radio stations and introduced herself with the help of the letter. The researcher then will ask for permission to conduct research in these organizations and their areas of operation. The different respondents, service providers are to be requested to consent before the questionnaire is administered on to them. Informed consent will sought after the respondents are assured that the research findings are to be treated as confidential. 3.5:Data analysis Data collected will be edited, categorized or coded and organized in themes and there after it will be analyzed in line with the objectives set at the beginning of the study. For the quantitative data, tally method will be used manually, similar responses will be grouped together to ascertain the number and percentage of respondents who came up with similar views. For qualitative data, views and opinions of respondents will grouped, analyzed and established if they have a bearing on the relationship between parenting styles, mass media, peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancy among the youth. All this will be done by use of frequency tables and tabulations at the level of report writing and presentation. 3.6:Limitations of the study 1Willingness of the organization management to allow the researcher to use the premises during the research period. This is because sometimes information broadcasted is kept confidential and people are keen on exposure. 2The results of the study may depend on some respondents’ willingness to answer the asked questions 3Literature available about the subject may be limited and difficult to access. 3.7:Ethical considerations Informed consent will be sought after the respondents are assured that the  research findings are to be treated as confidential. Participation in the study will be voluntary and individuals will be free to participate or not to participate even withdrawing from the study will be accepted. Since there is a lot of stigma attached to unwanted teenage pregnancy, only individuals who are willing to disclose will be studied. Information will not be tied to individuals to ensure there is no personalization of issues discussed. The researcher will not disclose the names of the radio stations and orphanage homes. References Ogun State/UNFPA (1998) Gateway Reproductive health: News and views – vol. 1 No.8 Awoniyi A. (1985) Child study educational practice: Nigeria, Macmillan Publishers Ltd. Lagos. Barnaba A. (1988) Parenting styles and adolescent behaviours: Lagos, Spring Publishers. Fayombo G.A. (2004) Human Development across life span: Ibadan, Alafas Nigeria Company. Fieldman R.S (2000) Essentials of understanding psychology: Boston, McGraw Hill. ARFN (2001) Helping youths cope with their adolescent years: Youth Scope (1), 1-6. Azuzu M.C. (1994) Human Sexuality: A primer: Ibadan, Ambassador Publications. Crystal C.D (1990) School Health and Practice: Lagos, Vantage Publishers. Akinboye, J.O. (1982) Strategies for handling adolescent and youth problems: Department of Guidance and Counselling, University of Ibadan. Jekel (1977) Primary and Secondary prevention of adolescent pregnancies – Journal of Nigerian School Health 41. Taylor N.W. (1999) A textbook of Hygiene for teachers in West Afr ica: London, Longman and Green Publishing Company. Manlove J. Early motherhood in an intergenerational perspective: the experiences of a British cohort. J Marriage Fam1997;59:263–79. Botting B, Michael Rosato, Wood R. Teenage mothers and the health of their children. Popul Trends1998;93:19–28. Ermisch J, Pevalin D. Who has a child as a teenager? ISER Working Paper 2003/30. Colchester: Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex, 2003. Dearden K, Hale C, Blankson M. Family structure, function and the early transition to fatherhood in Great Britain: identifying antecedents using longitudinal data. J Marriage Fam1994;56:844–52. Ellis BJ, Bates JE, Dodge KA, et al. Does father’s absence place daughters at special risk for early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy? Child Dev 2003;74:801–21. Woodward L, Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ. Risk factors and life processes associated with teenage pregnancy: results from a prospective study from birth to twenty years. J Marriage Fam2001;63:1170–84. Kiernan K. Transition to parenthood: young mothers, young fathers—associated factors and later life experiences. Welfare State Programme Discussion Paper WSP/113. London: London School of Economic, 1995. Barber JS. The intergenerational transmission of age at first birth among married and unmarried men and women. Soc Sci Res2001;30:219–47. Kahn JR, Anderson KE. Intergenerational patterns of teenage fertility. Demography1992;29:39–57. Wellings K, Nanchahal K, Macdowall W, et al. Sexual behaviour in Britain: early heterosexual experience. Lancet 2001;358:1843–9. Miller BC, Benson B, Galbraith KA. Family relationships and adolescent pregnancy risk: a research synthesis. Dev Rev2001;21:1–38. Taris TW, Semin GR. Parent-child interaction during adolescence, and the adolescent’s sexual experience: control, closeness and conflict. J Youth Adolesc1997;26:373–98. Lewis O. La Vida: a Puerto Rican family in the culture of poverty—San Juan and New York. London: Secker and Warburg, 1967. Joseph K. Caring for people. London: Conservative Political Centre, 1972. Murray C. The emerging British underclass. London: Institute of Economic Affairs, 1990. Murray C. Underclass: the crisis deepens. London: Institute of Economic Affairs, 1996. Welshman J. The cycle of deprivation and the concept of the underclass. Benefits2002;10:199–205. Rutter M, Madge N. Cycles of disadvantage. London: Heinemann, 1976. Denham A, Garnett M. From the cycle of enrichment to the cycle of deprivation. Benefits2002;10:193–8. Stephenson JM, Strange V, Forrest S, et al. Pupil-led sex education in England (RIPPLE study): cluster-randomised intervention trial. Lancet 2004;364:338–46. Oakley A, Rajan L. Social class and social support: the same or different? Sociology1991;25:31–59.

Chances of Winning the Lottery

Chances of Winning the Lottery Introduction Ive already won a hundred dollars in the state lottery, and hardly anyone wins that much twice. So, Im not likely to win that much again. This statement has been said by numerous people who has played the lottery and those who continues to play the lottery seeking a chance to become an instant winner for money that on just dreams about on a daily basis. To break it down, the chances of winning thee Lotto jackpot are roughly 1 in 3.5 million, or that the overall chances of winning any prize in the Lotto games are about 1 in 20. So why do people all over the world play the Lotto? When it comes to the Lotto it comes down to luck, it is nice when a person wins money playing the Lottery and the ore a person plays the better the odds for them, so technically there is a chance to win money twice buy playing the Lottery. In 2014 people in 44 states spent about 70 billion dollars playing the Lotto, so it is safe to say that someone within those 44 states hit some type of Lotto money twice no matter how small or large the amount was. In March 2014, The Palm Beach Post newspaper revealed that serial Florida jackpot winners, many of them store owners or operators, defied incredible odds to claim thousands of dollars in winnings. The most prolific winners cashed in tickets worth $600 or more every 11 days. [March 2017, Jeffrey Stinson]. Just from this statement alone we can pretty much say that there is a good chance to win some type of Lotto money twice especially if you are a serial Lotto player like the people in Florida. Four people who won two or more lotteries. Steven Ontell (right) of New Jersey; Melvyn Wilson, a four-time winner in Virginia; Connie Cottingham, who won twice in Indiana; and Delma Kinney, who won $1 million twice in Georgia. None of them won nearly as much as Joan Ginther, who won $5.4 million, $2 million, $3 million and $10 million in Texas. [ 2014, Peter Mucha Philly.com]. There are many stories about how many people have won the Lotto twice and more. It makes you wonder how is this happening when there are people how has played the Lotto all their life and has not won at all. If a person has won a hundred dollars in the state Lottery after reading about the people in this paper who has won big money twice, I think the odds are good for a person to win the state Lotto for a hundred dollars a second time. Lottery history is full of mind-boggling examples of winners winning again. Thats one reason the Texas Lottery never investigated Joan Ginther, who won $5.4 million in a 1993 Lotto Texas drawing and then hit it big in three scratch-off games, $2 million in Holiday Millionaire in 2006, $3 million in Millions Millions in 2008, and $10 million in $140,000,000 Extreme Payoff in 2010. Still, the $20.4 million she won tops not only cases involving seemingly normal players, it even beats examples involving crooks or master mathematicians. An MIT group, for example, mined the Massachusetts lottery for seven years, and reportedly won $3.5 million. [ 2014, Peter Mucha Philly.com]. This kind of make you wonder if a person can be this lucky, or is there so type of criminal activity that happen, and at the end of the day is the Lottery crooked. The evidence clearly proves that people can and will continue to win the Lotto multiple times throughout the United States. Questions will continue to rise are people just that lucky, is there Lotto scams through the States and why is playing the Lottery so addictive to so many people. No matter what there will always be a difference in opinion when it comes to this topic between the so, called experts. Conclusion The question at the end of the day will continue to be argued even though there seems to be overwhelming proof that a person can win the Lotto multiple times in ones life. There are some people in the world that could care less about the argument or debate but for the millions or even billions of people who plays the Lotto on a daily basis trying to become rich quick by either scratching or playing different numbers will continue to play. So, to the person who won a hundred dollars in the State Lottery, and hardly thinks anyone wins that much twice, and thinks he/she will not win that much again. Please read the stories of people who have broken all the odds win it comes to the Lotto. References www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2015/1/ www.lottonumbers.com/lotto-odds-calculator.asp www.philly.com//lottery/multiple_winners_in_lottery_history.html Some Lottery Retailers Beat the Odds and Cost States (January 27, 2015 By Jeffrey Stinson)

9-11 Essay

The horrific after math of the tragedy event of 9-11 still impacts the United States government and the life of the citizens living in the United States today. There are still many concerns and question about what can the United States do to help prevent a terror event from taking place again. The United States has made some massive changes in it’s security since 9-11. However, even with all the new laws and regulations some believe that there is still a need for more laws. More laws and regulations that would allow law enforcement and the government to maintain or increase the liberties they have enjoyed prior to 9-11. Today the Unites States has made an enormous improvement in technology to make it safer. With all the new technology improvements since 9-11 the United States is safer, but not as safe as it could be. Citizens living in this county know that in order to make more improvement in our homeland security, counterterrorism, or any other aspect it will require new technology. But new technology doesn’t come cheap; there is a price to pay that isn’t of monetary value, less privacy for citizens. Is the invasion of some of your privacy worth giving up for protection? What can be more important than the safety of your life? One of the marvelous improvements of technology that took place preceding the event of 9-11 was airport security. These improvements were made for the better and have yield good result. With this being said, there is still controversy surrounding the changes made, like the invasion of privacy. Transportation Security Administration performs frisk and pat downs at airports, which do not violate an individual’s constitutional rights, but, there is controversy about how far Transportation Security Administration should be able to go. Today people are told to do things like take their shoes off at airports, (add another thing security does and then put a comma with etc. after it to end the sentence) These still do not violate your constitutional rights. Would you rather have someone take off their shoes or bring a bomb or weapon onto a plane? Airport security raises a lot of concern about, â€Å"how far is too far.† There was an incident with a 90 year old lady at an airport that was ask to take off her diaper. The reason that she was asked was because it was wet and it prevented her from being search properly. Once again the thing that we are overlooking is that the matter of safety overrides everything else. Or what about in 2009, when Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab was found with plastic explosives hidden in his underwear at an airport. Without the new searches and frisk and pad down procedures, the plastic bomb would have been overlooked. It’s obvious that new enforcement of laws have slowed down some of the terrorism acts but there is still much more that still needs to be done. These are just some of the reasons why our government has invested 100s of millions of dollars to speed up technology machines and equipment. One of the types of data that the government gathers about citizens are cell phone records. The National Security Agency collected the phone records of millions of Verizon customers. They ordered that, â€Å"Verizon must provide the phone numbers of both parties on a call, location data, unique identifiers and the time and duration of calls. This applies to calls both within the United States and placed to an international number,† (Welsh, 2013). This is still not an invasion of privacy or constitutional rights. Let’s take some time out to think here, what could our government be doing with this information? If anything, it’s something positive; why won’t the citizens of this country trust their government? The collection of phone numbers is for our safety. We as people should have a right to know if our neighbor is plotting a terrorist attack. If you have nothing to hide, then why would you mind giving up that information to the government? What harm coul d come from phone records. The United States government is something that every citizen in this country should put his or her trust into. With the trust and support of the people we as a whole could worry less about things like bomb threats at races, shootings in school, or shootings at movie theaters. Another type of data that is collected by our government is the gathering of online data of person’s computers records. â€Å"The Internet Surveillance Program collects data from online providers including e-mail, chat services, videos, photos, stored data, file transfers, video conferencing and  log-ins,† (Savage, 2013). Even with our government monitoring these events, which take place every day in every person’s life living in America, it still remains an issue of violating privacy. Once again its comes down to that phase if you have nothing to hide let us in†¦.if you’re a good American. I’m pretty sure the government is not listening or concerned about the foolish meaningless stuff. They can less about who individuals are dating or hanging out with. The Internet Surveillance Program was establishes to catch bad guys and prevent faulty events from taking place. The information like emails, chat service, photos, etc. is private information and should remain confidential. Which the information will, our government is not going to expose this information to the public unless there is some type of suspicion or probable cause. But, even before the situation escalates to that point there would probably be an intensive investigation. We have either seen on the news or read somewhere in a paper about the Federal Bureau Investigation, National Security Agency, or one of the many other organizations being abusive to citizens. We are human, sometimes we are going to make mistakes, but nobody wants to be accused of a crime. When the government holds someone in custody then later finds out that they are innocent, the government should find some way to compensate them for their cooperation and our mistake of false accusations. I believe that we have not left the door open to wide, in my opinion, we should welcome the government into our homes. We should show our government that we are law abiding citizens and that we appreciate what they do to help maintain peace, allowing everyone to feel safer. As far as our liberty goes, we must allow some of it to erode in order to live a safer life. Our founding fathers wrote our rights, such as liberty, many years ago. But since those times, look at how things have evolved over th e past years, such as social media, cell phones, Facebook, etc. So we must also allow our laws to evolve in order to prevent conflicts, such as 9-11. When the next big incident occurs the point of views made in this argument are some issues that will once again be evaluated. Who knows when our government will take action and do what is needed in order to maintain safety and peace. As a citizen of the United States, I am willing to give up  some of my individual rights to ensure that tragic events such as 9-11 do not occur again. The top priority should be the protection and safety of every individual living in the Unites States.

I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings

Lee 1 Nadia Lee English 2 Mr. List 19 January 2013 I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings By: Maya Angelou 1. Before I chose this poem, I was thinking about choosing a couple of other ones when I finally realized that this poem caught my eye the most. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings helped me realize the benefits and consequences from both sides in life. I found this poem in Google under the category that said â€Å"poems that talk about life†. If you read this poem and take it literally, than it will mean nothing, but if you take it to the next level by comparing it to life, than it will mean so much more. . The author of this poem is Maya Angelou who is a famous well known poet throughout the world. Angelou is an African American who went through so much pain during her youth years. Angelou was just a child when African Americans were being discriminated by whites. When she was eight years old, her mother’s boyfriend, Freeman, raped and sexually abused Angelou. She then told her brother who later took Freeman to court finding him guilty. After he was released from jail, one of Angelou’s uncles murdered Freeman later turning Angelou into a mute.Angelou stayed mute for five years, but within those years was when she developed a passion for books and literature. Throughout the years, Angelou has written many poems such as On the Pulse of Morning and Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ‘Fore I Diiie. 3. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings was chosen as the title of this poem because it talks about how people in life struggle through so many things and that we must hold on to hope in order to keep moving on in life. Angelou put this as the title because it represents who she is and Lee 2 what she went through.She knows why the caged bird sings because she is the caged bird. The title tells us that this poem is going to talk about what Angelou felt and her experiences of her youth. The caged bird and Angelou have so many things in common. Both have b een restricted and need to be let free. This title does reflect the overall theme of this poem. It actually explains so much more of the theme rather than the poem itself. I don’t believe that this poem needs an alternative title. It tells the reader everything already. It already touched my heart and I believe that it’s the perfect title. . I would say that this poem would be a lyrical type of poem. This poem expresses a lot of feelings and emotions that allows the reader to understand what the poet felt. This poem expresses the feelings of being alone, locked up and wanting to be free. I believe that the speaker of this poem is someone who is like a bystander. This bystander is observing one bird that is caged and another that is free. The situation is that the caged bird is trying to be like the free bird by spreading out its wings, but can’t because of its oppressor making it impossible for him to fly. 5.This poem is written in free verse meaning that it con tains no definite meter or a pattern of the rhyme scheme. It is divided into six stanzas containing four to eight lines within each stanza. Each line does not contain a lot of words and the poet makes it short and simple. 6. â€Å"The free bird leaps / on the back of the wind / and floats downstream / till the current ends / and dips his wings / in the orange sun rays / and dares to claim the sky. † This is an example of imagery where Angelou allows us to imagine a bird flying in the sky. The poet did not include any sounds devices in this poem.This poem contains many personifications and metaphors such as â€Å"But a caged bird stands on the grave of dreams† (metaphor). Angelou uses the caged bird and the free bird as an analogy that talks about her life. 7. This poem talks about two birds, one that is free and another that is locked up. Angelou talks about how the free bird is independent and does whatever it wants while the caged bird just Lee 3 hops around in his c age singing. She is comparing the lives of these two birds. The theme is about Angelou’s struggle to survive and how she grew up in a cruel world.The first stanza talks about how the free bird flies endlessly in the sky and floats down a stream relaxing. This stanza is telling us how there are people in this world who are not afraid of anything and can do whatever they please. To them, there is nothing that is troubling them and life is perfect. The second and third stanza then switches over to the caged bird and talks about how he does not have enough space to walk around. The only thing this bird can do is to sing about his rage. These stanzas tell us that there are those like Angelou who don’t possess what others have and uses the only thing they have.The only thing that they possess is hope and without hope there is nothing at all. The fourth stanza talk about how the free bird is provided with everything it needs. If you compare this to life than it tells us how t here are others who are spoiled and well cared for. The fifth stanza talks about how the caged bird only has his voice because everything he used to have are now gone. Even though some people don’t have what they need, they still make the best of what they have left. The last and final stanza repeats the third stanza. All we can do is to dream and wish for what we want while living life the best we can. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings Lee 1 Nadia Lee English 2 Mr. List 19 January 2013 I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings By: Maya Angelou 1. Before I chose this poem, I was thinking about choosing a couple of other ones when I finally realized that this poem caught my eye the most. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings helped me realize the benefits and consequences from both sides in life. I found this poem in Google under the category that said â€Å"poems that talk about life†. If you read this poem and take it literally, than it will mean nothing, but if you take it to the next level by comparing it to life, than it will mean so much more. . The author of this poem is Maya Angelou who is a famous well known poet throughout the world. Angelou is an African American who went through so much pain during her youth years. Angelou was just a child when African Americans were being discriminated by whites. When she was eight years old, her mother’s boyfriend, Freeman, raped and sexually abused Angelou. She then told her brother who later took Freeman to court finding him guilty. After he was released from jail, one of Angelou’s uncles murdered Freeman later turning Angelou into a mute.Angelou stayed mute for five years, but within those years was when she developed a passion for books and literature. Throughout the years, Angelou has written many poems such as On the Pulse of Morning and Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ‘Fore I Diiie. 3. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings was chosen as the title of this poem because it talks about how people in life struggle through so many things and that we must hold on to hope in order to keep moving on in life. Angelou put this as the title because it represents who she is and Lee 2 what she went through.She knows why the caged bird sings because she is the caged bird. The title tells us that this poem is going to talk about what Angelou felt and her experiences of her youth. The caged bird and Angelou have so many things in common. Both have b een restricted and need to be let free. This title does reflect the overall theme of this poem. It actually explains so much more of the theme rather than the poem itself. I don’t believe that this poem needs an alternative title. It tells the reader everything already. It already touched my heart and I believe that it’s the perfect title. . I would say that this poem would be a lyrical type of poem. This poem expresses a lot of feelings and emotions that allows the reader to understand what the poet felt. This poem expresses the feelings of being alone, locked up and wanting to be free. I believe that the speaker of this poem is someone who is like a bystander. This bystander is observing one bird that is caged and another that is free. The situation is that the caged bird is trying to be like the free bird by spreading out its wings, but can’t because of its oppressor making it impossible for him to fly. 5.This poem is written in free verse meaning that it con tains no definite meter or a pattern of the rhyme scheme. It is divided into six stanzas containing four to eight lines within each stanza. Each line does not contain a lot of words and the poet makes it short and simple. 6. â€Å"The free bird leaps / on the back of the wind / and floats downstream / till the current ends / and dips his wings / in the orange sun rays / and dares to claim the sky. † This is an example of imagery where Angelou allows us to imagine a bird flying in the sky. The poet did not include any sounds devices in this poem.This poem contains many personifications and metaphors such as â€Å"But a caged bird stands on the grave of dreams† (metaphor). Angelou uses the caged bird and the free bird as an analogy that talks about her life. 7. This poem talks about two birds, one that is free and another that is locked up. Angelou talks about how the free bird is independent and does whatever it wants while the caged bird just Lee 3 hops around in his c age singing. She is comparing the lives of these two birds. The theme is about Angelou’s struggle to survive and how she grew up in a cruel world.The first stanza talks about how the free bird flies endlessly in the sky and floats down a stream relaxing. This stanza is telling us how there are people in this world who are not afraid of anything and can do whatever they please. To them, there is nothing that is troubling them and life is perfect. The second and third stanza then switches over to the caged bird and talks about how he does not have enough space to walk around. The only thing this bird can do is to sing about his rage. These stanzas tell us that there are those like Angelou who don’t possess what others have and uses the only thing they have.The only thing that they possess is hope and without hope there is nothing at all. The fourth stanza talk about how the free bird is provided with everything it needs. If you compare this to life than it tells us how t here are others who are spoiled and well cared for. The fifth stanza talks about how the caged bird only has his voice because everything he used to have are now gone. Even though some people don’t have what they need, they still make the best of what they have left. The last and final stanza repeats the third stanza. All we can do is to dream and wish for what we want while living life the best we can.

Critical study of Microsporidia and other single-celled, obligate intracellular, eukaryotic parasites The WritePass Journal

Critical study of Microsporidia and other single-celled, obligate intracellular, eukaryotic parasites Introduction Critical study of Microsporidia and other single-celled, obligate intracellular, eukaryotic parasites IntroductionDiscovery and classificationMicrosporidia in FishDevelopmental cycleSpore morphologyRationaleMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussion ReferencesRelated Introduction Microsporidia are single-celled, obligate intracellular, eukaryotic parasites which infect a wide range of invertebrate and vertebrate hosts (Canning Lom 1986; Lom Dykova 1992; Desportes-Livage 2000 and Shaw Kent 1999). Amongst their hosts are a range of animal species such as rodents, rabbits, primates (including humans) but the most common hosts are insects and fish. Microsporidia belong to the phylum Microspora which are characterised by the production of infective spores which possess an elaborate extrusion apparatus (Weiss 2001). Identification of microsporidia up to the genus level is based on their ultrastructural characteristics and electron microscopy (EM) is considered the gold standard technique for species identification (Lom and Dykova 1992). Discovery and classification Microsporidia were discovered in 1857 and over 1200 species are known to date (Shaw Kent 1999). 156 species infect fish and these fall within 14 genera (Table 1) (reviewed in Lom 2002; Lom Nilsen 2003). Originally, Microsporidia were considered to be protozoa but they have been, not far long ago, reclassified as fungi in the general phylum Microsporidia (Keeling Fast 2002 and Sprague Becnel 1998). Possession of a chitin spore wall by microsporidia potentially links them to fungi. They are considered to be true eukaryotes because they have a membrane-bound nucleus, intra-cytoplasmic membrane system and chromosome separation on mitotic spindles. However, they have a less complex and smaller genome than other eukaryotes (Garcia 2002; Keeling 2009). Microsporidia in Fish Fish become infected with microsporidia when they ingest spores from other infected fish, that is to say, by direct per oral transmission (Dykova 1995). The parasites then invade the host cell’s cytoplasm and eventually displace the nucleus and other organelles during their course of development. The cytoplasm is reduced to a thin layer around the parasites. The host cell surrounds the parasites with mitochondria too, from which the latter obtains energy. Formation of large hypertrophic cells known as xenomas (Fig. 1) ensues (Lom Nilsen 2003). These cells can reach sizes of 400 – 500  µm and can be seen grossly as white cysts (Matthews Matthews 1980 and Ralphs Matthews 1986). Xenomas, cyst-like structures, comprise the hypertrophic host cell contents together with Microsporidia at multiple stages of development (Lom Dykova 2005). A symbiotic relationship develops between the parasite and host, which exhibit physiological integration. This helps the host to confine the parasites in only the infected cells, thereby limiting their spread to other cells and tissues. The parasites are provided with optimal growth conditions reminiscent of a culture tube in addition to protection from host immune attacks, since they are masked with host component (Lom Dykova 1992). Figure 1: Xenomas in the body cavity of the golden orfe. Figure 1: Large hypertrophic cells (xenomas) in the body cavity of the golden orfe. (Picture provided by Dr. R. Kirk, Kingston University London). Xenomas cause wasting of fish tissue leading to huge losses in catch value as well as reduced growth rates. Some cause serious lesions which result into the demise of infected fish when they destroy the host cells (Lom Dykova 1992). Microsporidiosis is considered to be a chronic lethal infection by Shaw and Kent 1999. Dykova and Lom (1978) stated that not all fish Microsporidia species cause xenomas. 9 out of the 14 genera of fish Microsporidia cause xenomas in table (1). Table 1: Microsporidia genera and their fish hosts. Microsporidia genus Fish host Glugea Stickleback, pond smelt, flounder, ayu Heterosporis Japanese eel, Jewel cichlid Ichthyosporidium Corkwing wrasse Kabatana Chinook, Masu, sockeye pink salmon; rainbow trout Loma Atlantic cod; haddock; pink, Coho, red, dog, sockeye Chinook salmon; rainbow trout Microfilum Lutjanus fulgens (Teleost) Microgemma Greater sand-eel Microsporidium Coho, red, dog Chinook salmon; rainbow trout; nilem; shiped catfish Neonosemoides Cichlid, tilapia Nosemoides Cichlid Nucleospora Salmon, Atlantic halibut Ovipleistophora Golden shiner, European chub Pleistophora Salmon, bream, pacific cod, turbot, roach Tetramicra Turbot Table 1. The 14 known genera of Microsporidia that infect fish (reviewed in Lom 2002; Lom Nilsen 2003), of which 9 (shown in red) cause xenomas in their hosts (reviewed in Lom 2002; Lom Dykova 2005). Developmental cycle Microsporidia undergo a complicated life cycle which involves merogony or schizogony and sporogony. Merogony is the proliferative stage during which numerous parasites are produced by binary or multiple fission whereas sporogony involves the production of mature spores. Both stages take place inside the host cell (Lom Dykova 1992). Initially, the sporoplasm is extruded by breakage and eversion of the polar tube through the thinnest apical part of the spore, with a build up of high pressure inside the spore being the driving force behind this mechanism. The polar tube pierces the host cell and literally injects the sporoplasm into it. This marks the start of development within the host (Lom Dykova 1992). Generally Microsporidia are small organisms and the largest developmental stages measure up to 50  µm (Dykova 1995). Spore morphology The spore (Fig. 2)is the infectious stage of Microsporidia, and the only stage viable outside of the host, due to possession of a tough outer wall. The spore wall is solid, occurs in one piece and consists of a thin outer glycoproteinous exospore and a thick inner chitin endospore. Spores occur in different shapes such as rod-shaped and spherical but oval or ellipsoidal are the most common. They measure between 3 and 10  µm in length and possess an elaborate hatching apparatus. The polaroplast, polar filament and posterior vacuole are the three most important parts of the spore involved in infection (Lom Dykova 1992; Dykova 1995). The spore has a very intricate morphology (Canning Lom 1986), but the most conspicuous part is the polar tube which extends obliquely from the anchoring disc at the anterior end to the posterior end of the spore, where it coils beneath the spore wall. A single or diplokaryon nucleus occurs in the sporoplasm between the polaroplast and the posterior vacu ole (Dykova 1995). Figure 2: A generalised diagram of a Microsporidia spore. Figure 2: Diagram of an oval-shaped spore showing a diprokaryon nucleus, the wall and other components involved in infection such as the polar tube and posterior vacuole (picture obtained from). Rationale Microsporidia have a huge impact on aquaculture since they cause severe diseases in fish, resulting in a reduction in the growth of fish stocks and productivity in the fish farming sector (Lom Dykova 1992; Dykova 1995). The economic significance of Microsporidia has therefore promoted extensive research into the pathology that they cause to their hosts (Lom 2002). This research project was conducted with the aim of investigating the nature and the extent of damage caused by xenomas in fish and the host’s response to infection (microsporidiosis) using histological techniques and light microscopy, as well as identifying the Microsporidia species infecting the golden orfe. Since there is limited research on Microsporidia, this would help provide more information regarding their pathology which could consequently be vital in controlling the impact they have on fish farming Materials and Methods Fish (golden orfe) obtained from a pond at Burton Bradstock in Dorset were dissected to remove gill and body cavity tissues infected with Microsporidia. These were fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for 48 hours and stored in industrial methylated spirit (IMS). The gill tissue was then decalcified overnight in Osteosoft (Merck, Germany) and again stored in 70% IMS. The tissues were then dehydrated in a series of alcohol of ascending concentrations, embedded in wax and serially sectioned at 5 to 10  µm (appendix 1). Staining with Masson’s tricrhome (appendix 2) was done before examining the sections using light microscopy (phase contrast). Image analysis technique was used to critically examine the stained sections in order to identify and evaluate the histopathological changes caused by Microsporidia. Results Initial macroscopic examination of the fish revealed compression of the organs of the body cavity by the xenomas; cyst-like structures which occur as circular or ovoid lumps (figure 1). Histological examination of the stained serial sections of the body cavity tissue revealed the localisation of the cysts (xenomas) mostly with in the subepithelial connective tissue of the gut (figure 3a). In many sections, the cysts were seen to occur in large numbers and in close proximity with one another (figure 3b). This was an indication that the body cavity tissues, and the fish in general, were heavily infected. The cysts appeared to be intact and were surrounded by a continuous membrane (figures 3b 4). This showed confinement of Microsporidia parasites within the infected hypertrophied cell. The xenomas contained large numbers of parasites which appeared to be at different stages of development (figure 4), for example meronts and spores. The merogonial stages of development were seen as whitish round or amorphous masses within the cysts. However, individual meronts could not be discerned (figure 4). The Microsporidia spores, which stained deep red with Masson’s trichrome (Joseph et al. 2006), were evident within the entire xenoma (figure 4). Unfortunately, the internal morphology of the spores could not be examined with light microscopy. Host cell organelles such as nuclei were not observed, as these were probably displaced by the developing parasites. Secondary xenomas, cysts developing within another cyst, were also seen and these too contained developing parasites (figure 6). This was an indication that the xenomas were developing or mature. Fibroblasts were observed within the connective tissue surrounding the xenomas (figure 5). These, presumably, played a role in laying down blue-staining collagen fibres around the xenomas as part of the inflammatory response from the host towards the parasites, which is known as a granulomatous response (figure 7). Unfortunately, no xenomas were found within the gills on histological examination, even though cysts were observed before the tissues were removed from the fish. This could have been due to destruction of these cysts, which were probably young, during surgical removal and/or chemical processing of the tissues. Telangiectasis (gill lamellar dilations) was observed in some slides, on closer examination, but this was not to be mistaken for xenomas. These observations were also made by other authors such as Abdel-Ghaffar et al. (2011); Gandhi, Locatelli Feist (1995) and Peyghan et al. (2009) Discussion Microsporidia infect a variety of marine and fresh water fish. This study used the fresh water ornamental fish, the golden orfe (Leuciscus idus), to examine the histopathological effect that Microsporidia have on fish in general. However, there is not much research that has been carried out regarding the histopathological effect that microsporidia have on golden orfe. The xenomas (cyst-like structures) observed grossly within the body cavity of the fish were generally spherical, as was noted by Matos et al (2003) too. They presumably exerted pressure onto the organs involved in feeding such as the gut, liver and intestines, hence impairing their vital functions (Ralphs Matthews 1986). This not only led to morphological modifications but also functional failure due to thickening of the gut wall and eventual occlusion of the lumen. This may be the limiting factor which affects growth in the infected fish and the indirect cause of their death (Dykova 1995). Occurrence of xenomas in large numbers and close proximity to each other (as seen in figure 3b) was suggestive of a heavy infection, which resulted in the death of the fish. This is in agreement with Lom Dykova (1992) who stated that Microsporidia provoke severe disease in wild and farmed fish populations causing major losses. According to the observations made in this study, parasites at different stages of development occurred within the xenomas. Merogonial stages which appeared as white masses and deep red staining spores were seen inside the xenomas which were surrounded by a continuous membrane. The parasites were confined within these cyst-like structures inside infected cells and this limited their spread to other tissues within the host. This mechanism is used by the host to control the infection. However, the parasites use it too as a means of evading recognition and destruction by the host’s immune cells such as macrophages, as stated by Lom Dykova (1992). The parasites replace the cell organelles and cause hypertrophy of the infected cell, before destroying it. The host cell type is difficult to recognise following transformation into a xenoma (Dykova 1995). The xenoma and its components are morphologically and physiologically integrated to from a separate entity which develops at the ex pense of the host (Lom Dykova 2005). The observation of a granulomatous reaction, a process achieved by fibroblasts laying down collagen fibres around the xenoma wall, is a type of host response towards the parasite and is in agreement with observations made by Lom and Dykova (1992, 2005) and Shaw Kent (1999). One of the demerits of this study was that the morphology of the spores was vague and their internal structures could not be examined well enough, due to the low resolving power of the light microscope. This rendered identification of the Microsporidia species infecting the fish studied in this study impossible. Lom Dykova (1992) stated that identification of Microsporidia was based on the ultrastructural features of the spores and/or the characteristic cell structure of the developmental stages, for example the polar tube. Electron microscopy is the gold-standard method to use in species identification of Microsporidia. In addition to this, Masson’s trichrome stain However, this study showed that Microsporidia infection in fish led to hypertrophy of infected cells, with the formation of the xenomas. These observations concur with those of Lom Dykova (1992); Lom Nilsen (2003) and other researchers, for example, Abdel-Ghaffar et al. (2011); Gandhi, Locatelli Feist (1995) and Peyghan et al. (2009). From the commercial point of view, Microsporidia are considered parasites of significant importance by Lom Dykova (1992) and Dykova (1995) who stated that microsporidia infection reduced the growth of fish stocks which resulted in losses within the fish sector. Currently, not much research has been done in regard to the histopathological effect that Microsporidia cause to their fish hosts, and other animals in general and therefore a lot more remains to be learnt about these pathogens. Fields that require much more extensive research include the mechanisms by which xenomas are formed and the nature of the xenomas, how the parasites evade the host immune system, invasion of host cells by parasites using their extrusion apparatus, host response towards infection, not to mention but a few. Lom (2002) proposed that a detailed knowledge of fish Microsporidia morphology and their taxonomy would greatly facilitate species determination. This would help provide vital information that would be used to design and produce drugs in order to reduce the impact that Microsporidia have on agriculture and aquaculture. References Abdel-Ghaffar, F., Bashtar, AR., Mehlhorn, H., AL-Rasheid, K. and Morsy, K. (2011) Microsporidian parasites: a danger facing marine fishes of the Red Sea. Parasitology Research 108, 219 – 225. Canning, E. and Lom, J. (1986) The microsporidia of vertebrates. Academic Press, New York and London, pp 289. Desportes-Livage, I., 2000. Biology of microsporidia. Contributions to Microbiology 6, 140–165. Dykova, I. and Lom, J. (1978) Tissue reaction of the three-spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus L. to infection with Glugea anomala (Moniez, 1887). Journal of Fish Diseases 1, 83 – 90. Dykova, I. (1995) Phylum Microspora. In: Woo, P.T.K., editor: Fish diseases and disorders. Protozoan and Metazoan Infections. Wallingford: CAB International, pp 149 – 176. Garcia, L.S. (2002) Laboratory Identification of the Microsporidia. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 40 (6), 1892 – 1901. Ghandi, S., Locatelli, L. and Feist, S.W. (1995) Occurrence of Loma sp. (Microsporidia) in farmed rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) at a site in south west England. Bulletin of the European Association of Fish Pathologists 15(2), 58 – 60. Keeling, P. (2009) Five questions about microsporidia. PLoS Pathogens 5 (9), e1000489. Keeling, P.J. and Fast, N.M. (2002) Microsporidia: Biology and Evolution of Highly Reduced Intracellular Parasites. Annual Review of Microbiology 56, 93 – 116. Lom, J. and Dykova, I. (1992) Protozoan Parasites of Fishes. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V, pp 125 154. Lom, J. and Dykova, I. (2005) Microsporidia xenomas in fish seen in a wider perspective (Review). Folia Parasitologica 52, 69 – 81. Lom, J. and Nilsen, F. (2003) Fish Microsporidia: fine structural diversity and phylogeny (Review). International Journal for Parasitology 33, 107 – 127. Lom,   J. (2002) A catalogue of described genera and species of microsporidians parasitic in fish (Review). Systematic Parasitology 53, 81 – 99. Matos, E., Corral, L. and Azevedo, C. (2003) Ultrastructural details of the xenoma of Loma myrophis (phylum Microsporidia) and extrusion of the polar tube during autoinfection. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 54, 203 – 207. Peyghan, R., Nabavi, L., Jamshidi, K. and Akbari, S. (2009) Microsporidian infection in lizardfish, Saurida undosquamis of Persian Gulf. Iranian Journal of Veterinary Research, Shiraz University 10(2), 180 – 185. Ralphs, J.R. and Matthews, R.A. (1986) Hepatic microsporidiosis due to Microgemma hepaticus n.g., n.sp. in juvenile grey mullet chelon labrosus. Journal of Fish Diseases 9 (3), 225 – 242. Shaw, R.W. and Kent, M.L. (1999) Fish Microsporidia. In Wittner, M. Weiss, L.M. Editors: The microsporidia and microsporidiosis. Washington, DC: ASM Press, pp 418 – 446. Sprague, V. and Becnel, J.J. (1998) Note on the name-author-date combination for the taxon microsporides Balbiani, 1882, when ranked as a phylum. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 71, 91 – 94. Weiss, LM. (2001) Microsporidia: emerging pathogenic protists. Acta Tropica 78 (2), 89 – 201.

Treatment of Alzheimers disease

Treatment of Alzheimers disease Introduction Brain is one of the most important body organs. Its failure or malfunctioning usually results into fatal cases that are complicated and costly to treat. Like any other disease of the human body, brain diseases manifest into different ways, displaying varying signs and symptoms together with diverse risk levels. Medical practitioners describe the loss of brain function as dementia, a condition caused by certain diseases, which affect the brain. In discovering diseases, which lead to this condition, Alzheimers disease is among them.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Treatment of Alzheimers disease specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Abbreviated as AD, the disease starts mildly before worsening with time. Its greatest effects are that it affects the overall memory ability of a patient, thinking and ultimately behavior. Alzheimers disease results into a wide range of diagnosis features, including memory impairment, poor judgment ability, personality problems, improper decision-making and language problems (Turkington Mitchell, 2009). According to documented research, Alzheimers disease is the primary cause of dementia affecting close to half a million people in the United Kingdom and five million in the United States. Importantly, dementia is a general term which refers to a collection of symptoms, which may include poor reasoning, problematic communicating ability, mood changes and impaired memory among others. These symptoms mainly occur following brain damage that could be caused by Alzheimers disease or other related infections. The disease is believed to have been first described by Alois Alzheimer, a German neurologist as a physical disease which predominantly affects the brain (Cohen, 1999). As a practicing doctor, Alois Alzheimer noticed unusual symptoms manifested by one of his dead patients in 1906. Alzheimers disease is well known to affect the normal structure of brain , which may result into the death of some important cells. It is important to double emphasize that the disease is progressive and may lead to continuous damage and death of more brain cells. As a result, patients with Alzheimers disease worsen with time. Like in other known cases, scientists have devoted their time discovering the treatment of the disease with results indicating that there is no exact cure for the disease yet (Brill, 2005). This research paper, therefore, gives an analysis of the treatment of the disease. Several segments covering the chemistry of the disease have been incorporated in brief with a thorough and elaborate synthesis of treatment procedures that have been found working and recommended in dealing with the disease. Symptoms Major signs and symptoms of the disease revolve around the memory of patients as their brain gets damaged with time. Although memory problems could also be attributed to other infections, which affect the brain, medical practitioners concur that most cases are Alzheimer-related.Advertising Looking for research paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A common condition which affects memory is amnestic mild cognitive impairment. People with MCI are likely to experience more memory complications as compared to their age mates who are normal (Callone, 2010). The main difference with those with Alzheimers disease is that MCI patients experience mild symptoms as compared to severe symptoms observed among Alzheimers disease patients. Although not guaranteed, some researchers believe that old people with MCI are likely to develop Alzheimers disease. Apart from memory impairment, Alzheimers disease patients demonstrate low aspects of cognition, which is characterized by impaired reasoning and judgment, poor vision and word. As mentioned above, Alzheimers disease is progressive and shows varying symptoms depending on the development stag e of the disease (Soukup, 1996). During mild stage of Alzheimers disease, patients experience simple but dangerous problems like getting lost in a familiar neighborhood, inability to complete simple tasks even with plenty of time and inappropriate handling of money that may result into defaulting to pay bills. Some patients start repeating questions when asked and develop personality changes. Under normal circumstances, Alzheimers disease is diagnosed during this stage of development (National Institute on Aging, 2003). In cases where Alzheimers disease is not controlled during its first stage, it generally advances to the moderate stage of development, which involves damage of some brain parts that are responsible for language moderation, conscious thoughts and reasoning among others. At this stage, most patients experience severe loss of memory leading to a high level of confusion that makes them impossible to recognize their environment, family members and close friends (NHS, 201 0). Ultimately, patients become unable to perform simple tasks which may involve a series of steps like dressing up, become unable to cope with new situations and learn anything new. The last stage of Alzheimers disease development is considered dangerous since tangles, and plaques may have widely spread to most parts of the brain leading to severe shrinking of several brain tissues. At this stage, patients are described as dependents due to their inability to communicate and take care of themselves (Nordqvist, 2011). During final levels of this stage, patients spent most of their time in bed helplessly as their body systems shut down slowly. Notably, these three stages are irreversible although intervention during the first stage can be helpful in reducing the severity of the symptoms manifested.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Treatment of Alzheimers disease specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Causes of Alzh eimers disease According to Mayo Clinic Staff, Alzheimers disease has no single cause identified by medical experts throughout the world. It is believed to be caused by intertwined factors, which include environmental, lifestyle and genetic make-up, which progressively affect the normal body functioning (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). Research further indicates that less than five percent of cases, which occur are gene-related. Importantly, some people show the symptoms of infection after the disease has developed to advanced levels that the severity of the symptoms cannot be regulated. Although there are varying findings, Alzheimers disease people who are above the age of sixty years are always at a higher risk of developing the Alzheimers disease. In the United States, more than five million people live with Alzheimers disease today. The following segments describe some of the factors known to cause Alzheimers disease. Age Among all the factors, age is the greatest predisposing factor of Alzheimers disease. According to scientific research done by Alzheimer Society, Dementia is common in people who are above the age of sixty-five years with statistical analysis showing that one out of fourteen people who have attained this age is at risk of developing the disease(Alzheimers Society, 2011). Genetic Inheritance Although research is still underway, there have been cases where certain families show consistency and high risk of infection than others. Nevertheless, genetic factors rarely affect older people in spite of them having a higher risk of being infected by Alzheimers disease. Those people who have close family members with the disease have a slightly higher chance of developing as compared to families, which lack traces of the disease (Alzheimers Society, 2011). With regard to environmental factors, no substantive research has been documented even though some experts have associated Alzheimers disease with high exposure to aluminum metal. Nevertheless, these c laims have been discounted on several occasions, leaving room for further investigations. Additionally, the majority of people who suffer from Down’s syndrome are highly susceptible due to the existing variations in their chromosomal make-up. The risk is considered higher among people who are above the age of fifty years.Advertising Looking for research paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Similarly, exposure to head injuries resulting from accidents and high pressure exerted during boxing and other related activities, which may cause injury of brain tissue leading to subsequent development of the disease. Lastly, cigarette smokers and people have developed high blood pressure are at a higher risk of developing the disease. Maintaining a holistic healthy life is highly recommended in lowering the risk of Alzheimers disease infection (Alzheimers Disease Research, 2011). Tests and Diagnosis of Alzheimers disease An important remark is that there are no specific tests, which have been recommended to be confirmatory. As a result, tests are usually determined by the doctor’s judgment based on the physical observations and other simple test, which may be carried out to give some form of clarity. Most doctors are able to identify patients with dementia and even go-ahead to evaluate whether the situation may have been caused by Alzheimers disease. However, accurate dia gnosis can only be established after the death of a patient through microscopic examination of brain tissues (National Institute of Aging, 2010). Such analysis usually reveals the characteristics of plaques and tangles that may have developed after the disease developed to advanced and severe stages. Moreover, there are several tests, which have been designed in order to establish a basis to differentiate other causes of memory loss from Alzheimers disease. Physical examination This involves the general analysis of the neurological health of a patient which among other things focuses on coordination, reflexes, balance, muscle tone, functionality of sense of touch and sight and locomotive ability. Laboratory tests are very important in eliminating other potential causes of observed memory impairment among patients like insufficient vitamins and thyroid disorders (Hill, 2011). Additionally, mental tests are imperative in identifying the stability of a patient’s memory. This tak es close to ten minutes before the neurologists can ascertain the exact condition of the memory of his or her patient. This test involves simple tasks like drawings, copying some design, writing and memory of some words uttered by the examining specialist. Neuropsychological testing Based on results obtained during initial stages of testing, doctors may recommend a broader assessment exercise that would lead to finer diagnostic results. These tests usually take longer hours and is considered helping in determining whether the disease is at its initial stages or that the patient could be suffering from another type of dementia. They also help in the identification of specific changes which occur as a result of different manifestations of dementia (Nazario, 2011). Imaging Brain imaging is rarely used in understanding the nature of brain abnormalities which could not necessarily be related to Alzheimers disease. These include tumors and strokes which have the ability to cause quantifia ble cognitive variation in patients. Common imaging techniques used include Computerized tomography (CT), Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and Positron emission tomography (PET) (Nazario, 2011). Although these techniques are used in testing Alzheimers disease, it is important to understand that they make use of radiations which have been found to have adverse effects on human beings. As a caution, doctors are not allowed to expose human brain to extreme radiations to avoid long-term damage of cells and emergence of other health complications. Treatment As mentioned above, Alzheimers disease is the most common type of dementia affecting millions of people around the world. With close fifteen million people suffering from the disease worldwide, there has been research efforts geared towards identifying methods of preventing the disease or reversing of progressive symptoms. However, these efforts have not bore substantive results (Alzheimers Association, 2010). While this has been the case, there are drugs recommended for Alzheimer patients for lowering the severity of observed symptoms and prevention of other opportunistic infections, which may affect Alzheimer patients. The most important thing about management of Alzheimers disease is early diagnosis before it develops to unmanageable levels. If management programs are initiated early enough, many neurologists argue that such patients may be able to manage their lives without necessarily depending on caregivers at home. Additionally, may live longer due to reduced effects of manifested symptoms. Of extreme significance is the need for doctors to observe specific symptoms and administer relevant drugs. Common symptoms to be observed and taken care of include but not limited to behavioral problems, aggression, depression and sleeplessness (Kantor, 2010). Drugs Even though no drugs have been discovered for treatment and prevention of Alzheimers disease, there are those that are administered to lower the severity of symptoms among patients. In many cases, the effect and overall benefit of these drugs may be quite small to go unnoticed by patients and family members. Before patients and caregivers decide to use recommended drugs, it is important for proper consultation to be done to know when to use the drugs (Delrieu et al., 2011). In this respect, one is supposed to be aware of the side effects and some of the risks associated with it, having in mind that the expected change in functioning or behavior might be negligible. Patients also need to know the best time to use the drugs, and if there could be situations that would require the patient to discontinue drug administration. So far, there are two types of drugs, which have been approved for the management of Alzheimers disease. These are: Cholinesterase inhibitors Namenda Cholinesterase inhibitors This class of drugs consists of four drugs, which are Razadyne, Cognex, Aricept and Exelon. Cholinesterase inhibitors are known for their abil ity to prevent the breakdown of acetylcholine, a chemical found in the human brain that is responsible for memory and learning. The drugs have also been found to slow down the usual progression of Alzheimers disease symptoms for a limited duration of time ranging up to twelve months (Delrieu et al., 2011). In understanding these drugs, it is essential to know that Aricept is the only drug which has the approval of Food and Drug Administration for treating Alzheimers disease during its three stages of development discussed in the segments above. It is administered orally since it exists as tablets, which can be directly swallowed or dissolved in the mouth. Additionally, Cognex is reported to have been the first Alzheimers drug to be recognized and recommended for use by FDA. However, it is the least used drug in managing Alzheimers disease as compared to the other members of this category of drugs (Delrieu et al., 2011). Similarly, Exelon has been recommended for use mildly in modera ting Alzheimers disease symptoms before they become severe and irreversible. Exelon exists is several forms; as liquid, skin patch and in capsule form. Lastly, Razadyne, formerly known as Reminyl is recognized and approved for its ability and effectiveness in Alzheimers disease management (Cummings, 2001). It exists in three formulations, namely, liquid, immediate-release tablet and extended-release capsule. Like many other drugs used in treatment of diseases, Cholinesterase inhibitors have side effects, which have to be understood when a patient is using them. These include vomiting, insomnia, weight loss, diarrhea, loss of appetite, fatigue and nausea. Likewise, the use of Cognex may result into liver damage. It is considered to be the most dangerous side effects described by doctors. In order to prevent liver damaging, it is highly advisable for the doctor in charge to carry out liver tests to determine its functioning and likelihood of being affected as a result of Cognex (Cummi ngs, 2001). Namenda This drug has been approved to treat Alzheimers disease from moderate stage of development to the severe level. Unlike other drugs which have been approved for the treatment of the disease, Namenda has a unique mechanism in treating Alzheimers disease. Its protective ability allows it to moderate the release and activity of certain brain chemicals referred to as glutamate (Growdon, 1992). This is quite important since glutamate regulates the learning and memory ability of human beings. It has been observed that Alzheimers disease patients usually release excess glutamate in their brain which consequently affects their cognitive ability. In administering this drug, the brain would become capable of releasing normal amount of glutamate thus maintaining the ability of affected individuals to maintain their sense of memory and learning. Importantly, Namenda is the only drug which has proved to work this way and increases its efficiency when used with other drugs like Cognex, Aricept, Razadyne or Exelon. Common side effects associated with Namenda include headache, confusion, tiredness, constipation and dizziness (Kantor, 2010). Supplements There are several cases, which are been documented about people using vitamin E, B12 and B9, although no research has supported their efficiency in Alzheimers disease treatment. In other places, people believe that ginkgo biloba herb prevents the disease whereas scientific research has shown no correlation between the herb and Alzheimers disease. It, therefore, follows that drugs used as supplements in Alzheimers disease treatment should be recommended by a specialist since FDA does not approve over counter drugs. Supportive environment Patients with Alzheimers disease require supportive programs as part of the treatment plan. It is recommended that they be exposed to a safe environment that minimizes accidents due to their inability to support themselves and identify their surrounding correctly. Simple thing s like proper arrangement of furniture are important in promoting their safety (Nazario, 2011). Others include fixing handrails for support during movement, proper shoes selection and reducing the number of mirrors in the house since mirror images may frighten patients. Exercise and nutrition Regular exercising is highly recommended for everybody, including Alzheimers disease patients. This helps to maintain healthy joints, muscles and improve their mood. It also prevents constipation and augments sound sleep. These patients need to be well identified while exercising for easy identification by the public and offer them assistance once needed. Immobile patients can adopt stationary bikes and other approved machines (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). Regarding meals, Alzheimers patients need a balanced diet to maintain their deteriorating health. Reminding them to eat and giving them a hand in preparation and serving is healthy and encouraging. Conclusion From the above analysis of Alzheimer s disease, clearly its prevention and treatment remain a major challenge for neurologists around the world. While efforts to discover drugs for preventive purposes are on, it is imperative for the public to understand the manifestation of the disease in order for them to seek medical attention or help affected individuals to access specialized treatment before the disease advances. The use of FDA-approved drugs should be prescribed by a doctor to curb against negative side effects or wrong drug choice. Other healthy practices like excising and proper nutrition are equally essential in preventing the progression of symptoms (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). References Alzheimers Association. (2010). Alzheimers Disease. Alzheimers Association. 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